Ash, Erin, Jimmy Sanderson, Chenjerai Kumanyika and Kelly Gramlich. 2017. ““Just Goes to Show how These Hoes Try to Tear Men Down”: Investigating Twitter and Cultural Conversations on Athletic Ability, Race, and Sexual Assault.” Journal of Sports Media 12(1):65-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0078-8.
In this article, a study was done to determine whether minority groups have a implicit negative bias in comparison to a positive implicit bias towards someone outside their minority group. To do this, research was conducted by having surveyed 110 African-American workers after having them conduct tasks with other African-American and white workers. The task they were assigned to do was of intellect rather than something that required physicality to implicate stereotypes. The study concluded that the African-Americans considered their white counterparts as more fit to conduct the tasks they were doing than their minority coworkers.
Ashburn-Nardo, Leslie, and Nathan J. Johnson. 2008. “Implicit Outgroup Favoritism and Intergroup Judgment: The Moderating Role of Stereotypic Context.” Social Justice Research 21(4):490-508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0078-8.
In this article, a study is done to determine whether stereotypes are underlying in the perspective of white and black competence in white dominated work skilled based tasks. The kicker to this article is that the study focuses on this subject from a black perspective. The study does a survey on 110 Black workers and asked them to rate black and white work partners in these skills-based tasks, and the majority concluded that their black counterparts were less competent in white dominated jobs/skills than white people. They also showed favoritism towards these white people opposed towards their black counterpart in these skills. This article can be helpful as it can show that racial identity is rooted not only in white culture but Black culture as well, and it also focuses on white and black stereotypes such as black athleticism and white intellect.
Bimper, Albert Y. 2014. “Game Changers: The Role Athletic Identity and Racial Identity Play on Academic Performance.” Journal of College Student Development 55(8):795-807. http://ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu:2048/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/scholarly-journals/game-changers-role-athletic-identity-racial-play/docview/1628062168/se-2?accountid=2694.
In this article the study that is performed the focus is whether race plays a role in academic performance at the highest level of sports in the division one level of college sports. They test this by tying athletic identity and racial identity into predictors of academic performance. The study showed that athletic identify was a negative predictor of academic performance, but racial identify had no predicting status of grade point average performance. This study did tie in that minorities do associate themselves with their athletic identity more than white people do, so they hypothesis was not entirely rejected. There are many different things we could pull from this article to make it useful for our paper, as it shows how African Americans are perceived in their academic performance, as well as how their athletic identity could play a role in negative performance in the classroom. It also shows how the Black community plays a role in generating revenue for sports, so this could be a reason that a person of color would get a role such as the quarterback, which is the wrong reason to put someone in a prominent position.
Ducking, Johnny, Peter A. Groothuis and James R. Hill. 2015. “Exit Discrimination in the NFL: A Duration Analysis of Career Length.” Review of Black Political Economy 42(3):285-299. https://doiorg.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/10.1007/s12114-014-9207-9.
In this article, a study is done to determine whether there is a negative bias towards positional groups in the NFL based upon racial identity. This focus of the bias in this study is of career longevity. This study was performed due to the fact that in the past their has been evidence of this form of bias in other sports leagues, where minorities had been given a shorter leash than white participants. This was happening even though performance did not differ between the two racial identities. The way that this study was conducted was with factors such as race and factors that pertained to the positions, such as the running back position requiring a more brutal play style in comparison to the wide receiver. The study concluded that at the time there was no bias that had occurred.
Dufur, Mikaela J., and Seth L. Feinberg. 2009. “Race and the NFL Draft: Views from the Auction Block.” Qualitative Sociology 32(1):53-73. https://doi-org.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/10.1007/s11133-008-9119-8.
In this article, a study is conducted to determine whether racial stereotypes are present in the labor market of the NFL. This is done through interviews and field research with minorities who tried to obtain positions in the NFL where there might be underlying racial bias due to stereotypes. The study also looks at the many facets of football, such as the draft, the combine, and interviews. This article can be especially useful as one of the aspects of the study is how Black athletes are preferred to play positions that require strength and speed, and white athletes are placed in positions of decision making such as quarterback due to stereotypes of Black superiority in athleticism and white superiority in intelligence.
Farred, Grant. 2008. “When Kings were (Anti-?) Colonials: Black Athletes in Film.” Sport in Society 11(2-3):240-252. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430701823463.
In this article, we get an idea of how Black athletes who superstars in their respected sports are, which are white dominated, are depicted by the media. Examples we get are Jackie Robinson in segregated Baseball, Tiger Woods in white dominated Golf, and Muhammed Ali in a white dominated Boxing. Each athlete had their time in different eras, but the way they have been treated in these different eras does not differ by a whole lot. The article also focuses on Muhammad Ali and his fight with George Foreman, and how these men were treated by the media due to a man like Ali having opinions about the USA that did not make him favorable to the white dominated country. I think that this article can be great for my research as we get an idea how someone like Tiger Woods or Muhammed Ali are treated by the media in white dominated sports in comparison to someone like Colin Kaepernick’s depiction by the media in a white dominated position in football.
Hartmann, Douglas. 2019. “The Olympic “Revolt” of 1968 and its Lessons for Contemporary African American Athletic Activism.” European Journal of American Studies 14(1). https://doi.org/10.4000/ejas.14335.
In this article we get an idea of what African American activism in a historical context, and the need for this activism in the sports world, in a USA dynamic and the world. We get historical examples such as the 1968 Olympics all the way to Collin Kaepernick’s kneeling just a few years back in 2016. This article highlights the challenges faced as an African American athlete, as well as gives us an idea on how these movements have played a pivotal role in gaining support for minorities in the world of sports but as well as everyday life. We also get an idea of how this has played a part in receiving negative reactions from the public, such as the perceived black balling of Collin Kaepernick in the sport of football. This could be a great article to use for the us quarterback’s topic, as we could gain traction for the idea that Black quarterbacks are not viewed in the same light as white quarterbacks due to the negative attention they could bring to the team when they take a stance for the Black community, as they are the face of the franchise, and some people may not want to see that advancement for the Black community, or see politics in the sport.
Hrdina, Stefan G., and Paul M. Sommers. 2006. “When do NFL Quarterbacks Pass Their Prime?” Journal of Recreational Mathematics 34(2):89-93.
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In this article a study is conducted to determine when NFL quarterbacks reach their prime. The age that is determined as the prime years for a quarterback in the NFL is 31 years old, which is a much higher prime age than other positions in the NFL, such as the running back who has a shell life to the age of 30. I think that this article can be helpful because this gives are the target date for when quarterbacks are supposed to be in their best years. If so, can we determine whether white quarterbacks are given a higher prime life than Black quarterbacks in the NFL? If so, is this represented by how the media portrays Black quarterbacks as athletes who throw themselves into the fire. Did Kaepernick’s limelight shorten his prime?
Hughey, Matthew W., and Devon R. Goss. 2015. “A Level Playing Field? Media Constructions of Athletics, Genetics, and Race.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 661:182. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24541877.
This article gets right to the point of racial identity being socially constructed, with biology being confused with being intertwined with racial stereotypes. The article specifically focuses on the media’s portrayal of the stereotype of Black physical dominance and white intellectual dominance. Athletes such as Jessie Owens are used as an example of a Black athlete being designated as dominant because they genetically have more speed than the white person does, something that would be extremely prevalent for an athlete who raced during the Olympics in Nazi-Germany who was preaching these stereotypes of Aryan superiority. This article can be helpful as it zeroes in on the discourse that is set by the media in portrayals based upon racial identity, and we could tie this into our study of ESPN’s portrayals in these subjects.
Intravia, Jonathan, Alex R. Piquero, Leeper P. Nicole and Bryan Byers. 2020. ““Just Do It? An Examination of Race on Attitudes Associated with Nike’s Advertisement Featuring Colin Kaepernick”.” Deviant Behavior 41(10):1221-1231. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2019.1604299.
In this article a study is done on whether people supported Colin Kaepernick in the Nike advertisements, as well as opinion on social issues in their advertisements and their overall support for him. It is shown in the study that an African American is more likely to support his use in advertisements, support of social issues, and supporting his overall cause than someone who is white. This article can be helpful as it zeroes in on one of the most controversial quarterbacks in history and shows how people view him and the media or industries that are in support or not of him.
Johnson, Rich G., and Miles Romney. 2018. “Life in Black and White: Racial Framing by Sports Networks on Instagram.” Journal of Sports Media 13(2):1-18.
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In this article a study is done to determine whether the racial identity of athletes are represented based upon stereotypes in media, such as large corporations like ESPN. This was done as the study looked at 4 corporations, which were ESPN, FOX Sports, NBC Sports, and CBS Sports. 2000 images were analyzed from these corporations, and it was determined that stereotypes did exist heavily in the way that athletes were represented by these corporations based upon the racial identity of the athletes. The way that this occurred was minorities being presented through their inherent physicality as reasoning for their success as opposed to other factors such as work ethic and intelligence.
Krowe, Patrick. 2020. “Redemption for All? An Exploration of Racial Bias in ESPN.com’s Framing of Two Domestic Abuse Cases.” Howard Journal of Communications 32(1):71-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2020.1852631.
In this article a study is done to determine whether a racial bias occurs with media sources such as ESPN. The focus of this bias is athletes who commit immoral acts, and whether these media sources represent these athletes, based upon their racial identity, in a way that would be favorable to be forgiven by the public. Examples of this occurring are the domestic violence cases of the athletes Ray Rice and Josh Brown, where Rice, a minority, was represented in a less favorable way, as his case hit the news right away, while Brown had to admit to his actions before coverage really gained traction. The study concluded that trends of Black athletes who commit immoral actions are given less of a chance by media outlets to redeem themselves. The study also concluded that one should look at every case rather than just using one to represent athletes coverage as a whole, as each case has differences, such a Rice’s incident being caught on camera while Brown’s case being based upon accusations and an investigation.
Mears, Daniel P., Patricia Y. Warren, Ashley N. Arnio, Eric A. Stewart and Miltonette O. Craig. 2019. “A Legacy of Lynchings: Perceived Black Criminal Threat among Whites.” Law & Society Review 53(2):487-517. http://ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu:2048/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/scholarly-journals/legacy-lynchings-perceived-black-criminal-threat/docview/2216888430/se-2?accountid=2694.
This article does a study on the historical lynching’s of Black people in America due to stereotypes of the Black community being riddled with crime. Hypotheses of this study are that lynching’s are the foundation to criminal stereotypes of Black communities in contemporary America, as well as that these stereotypes will be more prevalent in communities where socioeconomic disadvantages exist and politics sway righter than left. This article is great because it shows how the white mind is developed based upon this prior lynching’s, which I think can be a great metaphor to what happens today to Black athletes in the media. The media essentially “lynches” these Black athletes by trying to portray them in less favorable ways to effectively keep them out of positions that are white dominated in a sport where socioeconomic disadvantages do exist and where politics conservative leaning in the upper management and media.
Murty, Komanduri S., Bridget Holyfield-Moss, Ashwin G. Vyas and Julian B. Roebuck. 2018. “African American Students’ Perceptions Toward NFL Kneeling and Trumps’ Reaction: Racial Justice VS Patriotism.” Race, Gender & Class 25(1):77-97. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26649535.
In this article we see how the public viewed the Collin Kaepernick situation in terms of activism itself, as well as the president’s reaction to activism. The Black community from an HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) was studied on the reactions to these events, where most were in support of Kaepernick and political statements in sports, and most were also not in support of Trumps Condemning of the political movement. We also see how someone of military status was also mostly in support of the movement. The movement was also seen as revolutionary, as it allowed others to take a stance in other sports, as well as getting support from prominent people such as former president Obama. This could be helpful as we see that the movement mostly got positive reactions, and someone who owns an NFL team, which is mostly old wealthy white people, such as in the same position of Donald Trump, who may oppose this upward movement in society, which gives headway for them to black ball those who replicate these actions.
Niven, David. 2021. “Who Says Shut Up and Dribble? Race and the Response to Athletes’ Political Activism.” Journal of African American Studies 25(2):298-311. https://doi-org.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/10.1007/s12111-021-09534-6.
In this article a study is done to determine the public’s attitudes towards political movements in sports and how these attitudes are shaped. Examples of Colin Kaepernick and Lebron James being shamed by the media are used to show how these athletes are being treated by the media and public for their stance in politics and sports. The study determined that those of conservative views and those who are white are less likely to support these political movements than those who are African American and liberal. Certain keywords are used to describe these athletes who participate in these movements, such as “idiots” or “lower intelligence.” What this article can do for us is show how the media sees people involved in these movements, and it also can show us how a black quarterback is viewed by the media versus the white quarterback as the Black quarterback may be seen as defiant and less intelligent, while the white quarterback is loyal and smart.
Parker, Heidi M., and Janet S. Fink. 2012. “Arrest Record or Openly Gay: The Impact of Athletes’ Personal Lives on Endorser Effectiveness.” Sport Marketing Quarterly 21(2):70-79. http://ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu:2048/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/scholarly-journals/arrest-record-openly-gay-impact-athletes-personal/docview/1316095775/se-2?accountid=2694.
This article provides us with an idea of how someone who has an arrest record can have a negative reaction with the public and how it can lead to preventing them with opportunities. Examples of Michael Vick and his dog fighting case, Kobe Bryant’s sexual assault, and Tiger Woods adultery are all used in the study as they express how those with these records could prevent them from gaining opportunity to prominent roles in the sports world. This can be a helpful article as we can see those stereotypes of this behavior being attributed with the Black community could lead to other African Americans to not see as many opportunities because of the prior events we have seen unfold.
Pitts, Joshua D., and Daniel M. Yost. 2013. “Racial Position Segregation in Intercollegiate Football: Do Players Become More Racially Segregated as they Transition from High School to College?” Review of Black Political Economy 40(2):207-230. https://doi-org.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/10.1007/s12114-012-9149-z
In this article a study is done to determine whether there is a racial bias when in comes to positions in football. For example, the quarterback position is typically tailored to white athletes, while positions such as running backs and cornerbacks are tailored to Black athletes. The focus of this study to determine whether this racial bias exists is whether racial identity determines whether one will change positions when transitioning from the high school level to the college level. It was determined that minority athletes are more likely to change positions than white athletes, which would explain why a position such as the quarterback position is mainly played by white athletes at the higher levels of the sport of Football.
Piquero, Alex R., Nicole L. Piquero, Marc Gertz, Thomas Baker, Jason Batton and J. C. Barnes. 2011. “Race, Punishment, and the Michael Vick Experience.” Social Science Quarterly 92(2):535-551. https://doiorg.ezpro.cc.gettysburg.edu/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2011.00781.x.
In this article a study is done to determine where the public’s attitudes are on crime in the NFL in the case of Michael Vick, a Black quarterback convicted of dog fighting. The study concluded that in the case of Michael Vick, most who were white believed that his punishment was not of justice and believed he had no place in the NFL, while those of other races seen his punishment in the opposite direction, just, and that he did his time and now it is time for forgiveness. This article is especially important because it shows how the public determines one who is in the spotlight’s fate for crimes. I think it could be extremely useful if we were to compare it to other players/quarterbacks who were not Black and committed crimes and see the public’s view on them and if they have a place in the NFL afterward, such as Ben Roethlisberger.
Sevi, Barış, Nathan Altman, Cameron G. Ford and Natalie J. Shook. 2019. “To Kneel or Not to Kneel: Right-Wing Authoritarianism Predicts Attitudes Toward NFL Kneeling Protests: Research and Reviews.” Current Psychology:1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00239-4.
In this article a study is done to determine what the public opinion looks like kneeling for the national anthem. In the study, 391 undergraduates of differing demographics were asked about their opinion on kneeling for the national anthem. The demographics measured family income, race, age, political identification, gender, and ethnicity. In the study, 41% supported the movement, 43% opposed it, and 15% were 50/50 on the issue. This article can be extremely helpful as it can show us how the media is representative of this data set. We can see that if media is represented by certain demographics that are shown in the data set, they can be more likely to portray quarterbacks of differing races in certain ways. We can also see how the media looks to appeal to public opinion with the content they are presenting.
Waymer, Damion, and Shauna Bradley. 2018. “If Professional Athletes must Talk with Media, are they Free to Express how they Truly Feel?: Examining Celebrity-Athlete Emotional Displays in Media.” Journal of Sports Media 13(1):1-25.
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In this article we are shown the expectations of the athletes and their relationship with the media. This article focuses on Cam Newton, former league MVP quarterback for the Carolina Panthers, and his presser he gave after the super bowl game between the Panthers and the Broncos. Cam Newton gave a short presser after the loss, which got him negative criticism from the media as a leader of the team. His presser got him a label as a sore loser after the loss, which led to Comparisions with another Black quarterback, Russell Wilson, and major white quarterbacks such as Tom Brady, and Peyton Manning. This leads to whether his actions were acceptable as an emotional reaction, or whether he needed to compose himself as a face of the franchise. This article can be helpful as we can see the standard of the position, and we get a feel that someone of the Black culture is supposed to conform to an identity of what society deems acceptable, which is white dominated.