Bibliography
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This study was conducted to examine the perceptions of college-aged students’ willingness to buy athletic brands’ products in regard to cause-related marketing (CRM). They focused on the students’ perceptions of brand globalness, brand-cause fit, firm motive, and purchase intention. They used the convenience sampling method to accumulate 382 college students at two universities located in a metropolitan city in South Korea. They found that students who are aware of the cause have a more positive attitude towards the marketing in comparison to those who do not know of the cause. They discuss the importance of consumers interpreting the underlying intent in marketing and the influence it has on their purchase behavior. Meaning transfer is also important in regard to globalness and culture. The meaning of an object from their culture can transfer to the meaning of another object. This emphasizes the importance of meaning in marketing and how these students showed that associating themselves with a cause they support then associates them with this brand.
Baer, Drake. 2015. “Here’s How under Armour Grew into a $15 Billion Athletic-Apparel Empire.” Business Insider. Retrieved February 9, 2022 (https://www.businessinsider.com/history-of-under-armour-2015-2?utm_source=copy-link&utm_medium=referral&utm_content=topbar).
Under Armour started off as a very small business out of the owner’s grandmother’s house. Over time they have been able to grow the company to the large success it is known for today.
Barker, Jeff. 2017. “Under Armour’s Challenge: Reaching Women.” Baltimore Sun. Retrieved April 21, 2022 (https://www.baltimoresun.com/business/bs-bz-under-armour-culture-20170725-story.html).
Under Armour has been built upon a very masculine environment which has reflected on the brand from the public perspective. They have been making many efforts to change this image and portray themselves as a more inclusive company in regards to gender.
BBC. n.d. “Women – Representation of Gender – GCSE Media Studies Revision – BBC Bitesize.” BBC News. Retrieved February 9, 2022 (https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zq6qsg8).
Gender representation has been molded by what is put out into the world through social media and other platforms that inform us of norms and expectations. There have been many instances where gender has been forced to fit the mold but we are seeing more and more instances of people breaking away from gender expectations.
Benson, Vladlena, Jean-Noel Ezingeard and Chris Hand. 2019. “An Empirical Study of Purchase Behaviour on Social Platforms: The Role of Risk, Beliefs and Characteristics.” Information Technology & People 32(4):876-896
This article is researching the drives behind purchase intentions on social networking sites, and they vary in their effects in relation to gender and age. They used a questionnaire which resulted in 514 usable responses from social media users. The survey used a scale asking the respondents about risk propensity, trust, technical efficacy, and perceived control. They found that purchase intentions on social media are influenced by three factors, cognitive, demographic, and belief. Based on these findings they also concluded that age and gender affect two of the factors, belief and cognitive. Age was found to be a basis of male’s purchase intentions, beliefs were important for younger women, and cognitive are important for older men.
Blystone, Dan. 2021. “The Story of Instagram: The Rise of the # 1 Photo-Sharing App.” Investopedia. Retrieved February 9, 2022 (https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/102615/story-instagram-rise-1-photo0sharing-app.asp).
Instagram has become one of the most popular social media apps. Even though it started out small it didn’t take long for it to grow and skyrocket up the most popular apps.
Danziger, Pam. 2020. “Can Lululemon Be To Men What It Is To Women, Or Does It Even Matter?” The Robin Report. Retrieved April 21, 2022 (https://www.therobinreport.com/can-lululemon-be-to-men-what-it-is-to-women-or-does-it-even matter/#:~:text=The%20company%20defines%20its%20core,%E2%80%9CLife%20on%20the%20Go.%E2%80%9D).
Lululemon is intended for both men and women but the question of do men think it is worth it has become more common. Men don’t seem to care as much as women about their attire in terms of dressing nice to workout but the cost of Lululemon can be difficult for anyone.
Davis, Stefanie E. 2018. “Objectification, Sexualization, and Misrepresentation: Social Media and the College Experience.” Social Media + Society 4(3) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2056305118786727.
The college experience has been created by the constructed idea that is seen online. This study focuses on two apps that are widely used amongst college-aged kids and have created many problems in what is expected of a college experience. Women have been objectified, portrayed as submissive, and a large emphasis has been created on what a young white college experience should be.
De Ridder, Sander. 2021. “The Banality of Digital Reputation: A Visual Ethnography of Young People, Reputation, and Social Media.” Media and Communication 9(3):218-227. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/mac.v9i3.4176.
This study looked at how a digital reputation is related to young people’s everyday power struggles including gendered, sexual, ethnic, and religious identity crossings. The study was a four-year project (2017-2021) researching 29 children ages 15-20 years old. It used a visual ethnographic approach and had the children create a visual representation of either a good or bad social media account using magazine clippings or drawings. During these activities, the children were asked questions and their responses were recorded to further the research. The goal was to see how they determined what made a good or bad reputation based on visual aesthetics. The children created collages to visualize their perspective and of the 4 that created a bad digital reputation, they signified being bad in two ways. The first was that sexual content can be harmful to reputation. The second was that it was perceived as bad to partake in online shaming as well as trolling. They discuss how digital reputation is gendered and how men are able to get away with more in comparison to women who are shamed for posing in a bikini for example. The children’s collages showed many naked women covering their breasts or in bikinis. Good reputations were those that fulfilled Instagrammability which was referred to as the ideal visual self-representation and even off Instagram has become the norm. Good reputations were also found to be those that visually showed positive virtues such as a good attitude, volunteering, and even being in support of left-liberal activism. The children’s colleges represented those that are healthy, fit, athletic, popular, traveling, and showing off luxurious items to name a few.
Emond, Jennifer A, PhD, MS, Frances Fleming-Milici PhD, Julia McCarthy JD, Sara Ribakove BA, Jeff C. MSW, Josh Golin MA, James D. Sargent MD, Diane Gilbert-Diamond ScD and Polacsek, Michele,PhD., M.H.S. 2021. “Unhealthy Food Marketing on Commercial Educational Websites: Remote Learning and Gaps in Regulation.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 60(4):587. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2020.10.008
This article explores the issue of unhealthy food advertisements being marketed on children’s learning websites during online school. The shift to online school due to the pandemic led to a lot of screen time which provided organizations the opportunity to increase their marketing. This study looked at many online websites that children were using for school and found large amounts of unhealthy food advertisements being portrayed on the screen. These advertisements were found to be distracting and encourage unhealthy eating habits to children.
Finkle, Colin. 2018. “Athleta History & Brand Profile.” BMB: Brand Marketing Blog. Retrieved February 9, 2022 (https://brandmarketingblog.com/articles/good-branding/athleta/).
Athleta is a female-focused company catering to the style needs of women on the go whether that be athleisure or to the gym. They are partnered with The Gap and have built a competitive athletic brand.
Grow, Jean M. 2006. “Stories of Community: The First Ten Years of Nike Women’s Advertising.” The American Journal of Semiotics 22(1-4):167-196,211
This article focuses on the research done over a course of 10 years, analyzing Nike’s first 10 years of women’s advertising from 1990 to 2000. The driving question was what symbolically ties these ten years of advertising into a cohesive whole and how? The study looked at primarily print campaigns (image ads not product ads) that addressed their three communities. They analyzed 10 for the empowered community, 10 for the community of athletes, and 7 for the divided community resulting in a total of 27 print ads. They also conducted in-depth interviews that took place in both 1998 and 2000. The participants were practically every person involved in the creative aspects of the campaigns in those 10 years. They found that community is an important role in how to connect their advertisements to the cultural and social experiences of women. The most effective way to do this was through storytelling. The Nike swoosh became the symbolic measure that empowered women and their athleticism within this community. It was the creatives (the people working on the advertisements) who used their work as a way to share their own views and new meanings of womanhood.
Hagenbuch, David J., and Laureen M. Mgrdichian. 2020. “Mindful Marketing: A Strategy Based, Branded Approach for Encouraging Ethical Marketing.” Marketing Education Review. 30(1):15. doi: 10.1080/10528008.2019.1686993.
This article addresses the issue surrounding the field of marketing which is that it lacks honesty and ethics. The study aimed to spread a theoretical foundation of Mindful Marketing and the use of the Marketing Matrix. They wanted to use their approach to a more ethical yet still effective form of marketing by sending out a survey to two universities. The surveys were taken by 3 classes of either marketing or advertising with a total of 97 students. The study found that a large majority of the students were able to recognize the Mindful Marketing theme. They connected this to a general understanding to the students of good marketing means ethical as well as effective. Students found that Mindful Marketing is easy to use and something they enjoy doing.
Harrigan, Paul, and Bev Hulbert. 2011. “How can Marketing Academics Serve Marketing Practice? the New Marketing DNA as a Model for Marketing Education.” Journal of Marketing Education : JME / 33(3):253. doi: 10.1177/0273475311420234
This article acknowledges the gap between marketing education and marketing practice after graduating from university. The issue is that students learn information that is no longer up to date with 21st century marketing practice. Previously marketing had been centered around television and emails but with the rise in technological advances marketing can now be conducted over various types of online platforms. The article is asking what forms of marketing organizations are using as well as changing the marketing education structure. The study was conducted through 70 in depth interviews to gain an understanding as to why people act the way they do and the meanings behind these actions. The interviewees were asked questions regarding their role in their organization as well as marketing’s role in the organization. The consensus of the findings is that technology in organizations has allowed a more personable relationship between them and their consumers as they feel more understood. From the educational standpoint they found that marketing education must be improved from the current standard to best prepare the students for the future and assimilating with the marketing practice that is expected of the time.
Jaworek, Małgorzata, Włodzimierz Karaszewski and Magdalena Kuczmarska. 2021. “Source of Success of the most Valuable Sportswear Brands in the World.” Journal of Physical Education and Sport 21:1050-1056. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7752/jpes.2021.s2131
This study analyzed the most valuable sportswear brands in the world. They focused on the changes of their success, sources of their success, and sales performance. They gathered their data from the official statistical sources and periodical rankings that have been published by both consulting teams and organizations. They focused on the years 2006-2020. Nike, Puma, and Adidas continued to show as the most successful brands in both 2006 as well as 2020 with Lululemon, Under Armour, and The North Face joining in 2020. Nike and Adidas were found to be the most valuable global sportswear brands with Lululemon quickly growing. Their findings help prove the relevance of sports brands through the increase in success found amongst them. As the global sportswear brand grew so did the economic success and value of many companies.
Keller, Heidi, and Rosemary Thackeray. 2011. “Social Marketing and the Creative Process: Staying True to Your Social Marketing Objectives.” Health Promotion Practice. 12(5):651. doi: 10.1177/1524839911421345.
This article follows the important steps to proper marketing strategies for public health practitioners. Using the fourth P in the marketing mix, promotion, the article addresses how promotion in social marketing plans can be beneficial for public health practitioners through the use of creative professionals. They express the effectiveness and ineffectiveness found in health-related marketing. They express the importance of following a marketing plan so to ensure they stay on track with their objectives and execute their promotional efforts effectively.
Kim, Kayoung, and Michael Sagas. 2014. “Athletic Or Sexy? A Comparison of Female Athletes And Fashion Models in Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issues.” Gender Issues 31(2):123 141. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12147-014-9121-2.
In this study, they analyzed the comparison of female athletes and Sports Illustrated (SI) swimsuit issues fashion models. They looked at 1,099 images of both female athletes and female fashion models who pose for the SI swimsuit issues over a period of 15 years. In their analysis of the photos, they used a theoretical lens of objectification where they saw how media represented dominant masculinity and femininity in different ways for the two types of models. To measure the objectivity, they looked at the way the body was posed, the facial expression, hand gestures, and where the photo was shot. They found that the athletes were photographed in sport-related settings while the fashion models were seen in travel spots. Fashion models were found to smile less frequently than athletes. Athletes were posed in independent and more active and upright positions as well as partaking in athletic activities. The fashion models were found to be sitting or reclining with their bodies upright or lying down. This showed that the athletes were found to be less passive than fashion models. Fashion models were more often found to cover their breasts and female athletes were posed in less sexual hand poses including no touching or even touching others.
Lululemon. n.d. “History.” History | Lululemon Athletica. Retrieved February 9, 2022 (https://info.lululemon.com/about/our-story/history).
Mayoh, Joanne, and Ian Jones. 2021. “Young People’s Experiences of Engaging with Fitspiration on Instagram: Gendered Perspective.” Journal of Medical Internet Research:e17811. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2196/17811.
This study analyzed how young people (ages 18-24) interact with Instagram content that is considered fitspiration using a gendered perspective. Fitspiration is pictures of fit people, people in the gym, healthy food, or inspirational quotes that have to do with either fitness or diets. They conducted a survey of 1,213 participants that only took 10 minutes. The survey consisted of demographic information, use of Instagram, as well as their content, and engagement. They found that men interact with this content of athletes and bodybuilders for inspiration to become stronger like them. They found that men are more likely to engage with professional sportsmen content on social media rather than models or celebrities. This is because men see the athletes as having active performing bodies whereas models and celebrities have created ideal bodies to fulfill aesthetic visual expectations. Women were found to be the opposite, they see fitspiration as a way to inspire them to lose weight and look at models, celebrities, and influencers’ content, unlike men. They found that men are more likely to engage in this type of content than women. Women are more likely to partake in fitspiration as they see their bodies more as objects that must be evaluated by others, but this could be said for those that feel they fulfill the gendered body ideals while those who do not are less likely to contribute to posting fitspiration.
Midgley, Claire, DeBues-Stafford Gabriela, Penelope Lockwood and Sabrina Thai. 2021. “She Needs to See it to be it: The Importance of Same-Gender Athletic Role Models.” Sex Roles. 85(3-4):142. doi: 10.1007/s11199-020-01209-y.
This study focuses on the importance of role models based on gender that influence and motivate those who also participate in either sports or athletics. This study was broken up into 4 separate studies, studies 1, 2, and 4 were asking the participants to provide examples of athletes, and study 3 asked the participants to provide a description of their athletic role models. They then assessed the characteristics the participants chose to use to describe the athletes and then examined the extent of how impactful these characteristics are in an athlete playing an inspirational role model. They found that like men, women were more likely to feel motivated by women in their sport however there are fewer female athletes out there causing women to turn to people they personally know as athletic role models for inspiration. They also found that female athletic role models were inspiring to other women because they made their dreams seem more attainable and counteract gender stereotypes.
Mucundorfeanu, Meda, PhD. 2018. “The Key Role of Storytelling in the Branding Process.” Journal of Media Research 11(1):42-54. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/jmr.30.3.
This article addresses this approach of storytelling in marketing to gain a better understanding of the process and effectiveness it has in relation to branding. The study looks at various brands and analyzes examples of their branding efforts through storytelling. They found that stories have such a powerful and influential effect on people due to the way the brain stores episodic memories, and the mention or sight can bring out these memories. They believe that an item or product is the starting point of the story that is essential to the core of the brand. It represents their values without boosting their image at any cost.
Nike. n.d. “Read Nike’s Mission Statement and Find Information about Nike, Inc. Innovation, Sustainability, Community Impact and More.” Nike News. Retrieved February 9, 2022 (https://about.nike.com/).
Nike is a large athletic brand focused on being innovative, sustainable, and involved within its community. They have grown enormously over time and work with some of the best teams in the world.
Pauline, Gina. 2014. “Women’s Participation in Endurance Events: An Example of how Far we have Come.” Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 85(1):4-6
This article discusses the increase in female involvement in athletics, primarily running. They address the shift in gender equity that was the result of Kathrine Switzer 1967 who was a woman competing in the Boston Marathon when it was considered inappropriate for women to run. Today women are now involved in running and created a culture of women running and partaking in these events. They explain how the marketing was originally male-focused but has taken a turn and created a whole new niche market designed for women, specifically obstacle races. They question what is appealing to women to participate in these endurance activities including running, obstacle races, and triathlons, and the implications these events have on other areas of the industry. They have found that marketing and social media have played a huge role. Events have been catered toward women and social media designed to appeal to all, not just women. They use social media to provide healthy lifestyle tips as well as nutrition, motivation, fitness, and product information. These have created communities for women to support and empower each other. They discuss how this increase in female involvement has led to large organizations shifting their efforts towards this new demographic. Lululemon and Athleta have reached great success through their products that incorporate female fashion with athleticism. This article helps bring attention to the feminist side of athletics and some background information on how women have changed the industry.
Popp, Richard K. 2016. “Commercial Pacification: Airline Advertising, Fear of Flight, and the Shaping of Popular Emotion.” Journal of Consumer Culture. 16(1):61
This paper addresses how companies advertise around fears associated with products. This particular paper looks at airplanes from the 1920s to the 1970s and how they managed to advertise during a time when people were scared to fly. They found that airline advertisers used their consumer’s emotions to increase sales. The two major points made in their marketing efforts were that a fear of flying was feminine and that it also meant the characteristic of having an underdeveloped psyche. Through their intentions of downplaying these fears, glorifying flying on airplanes, and family values they found that gender and mental health were the most effective way to advertise a common fear.
Santhosh, V., and Raghavendra Babu. 2020. “A Study on Women Consumers’ Attitudes Towards Green Marketing.” Journal of International Women’s Studies 21(5):46-53
This study is researching women’s awareness of green product marketing. They used primary and secondary data collection with the primary data being surveys and interactions of 25 women respondents and the secondary data being information from published sources such as journals and books. The findings concluded a variety of responses including the health benefits they see in green products but also the costly side which some believed to show high social status. An important finding is that 52% of the respondents said that they are influenced by green products which are good to know for my research regarding the effects marketing has on people. They also found that women were concerned about the health and well-being of their families which influences their decisions in regard to marketing.
Schulz, Steven A., Thomas Martin and Heather M. Meyer. 2017. “Factors Influencing Organization Commitment: Internal Marketing Orientation, External Marketing Orientation, and Subjective Well-Being.” The Journal of Management Development 36(10):1294-1303. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JMD-12-2016-0334.
This paper was aimed at understanding the effects of both internal and external marketing orientation as well as subjective well-being. The question they are asking is if these three variables listed had a significant impact on organizational commitment. The information was collected through a survey of 108 product and service-oriented workers in the midwest. The findings of the study concluded that all three variables, internal marketing orientation, external marketing orientation, and well-being all played a significant role in the effectiveness of organizational commitment. This study addresses how an employee’s internal and external marketing orientation as well as well-being have a direct impact on their commitment to their organization which in turn affects how they dedicate themselves to the organization and their customers.
Shahid, Saima E., and Ayesha Ashfaq. 2021. “Coca-Cola and PepsiCo Advertising in Pakistan: Changing Trends of Cultural Values Manifested in Television Commercials.” Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan 58(2):270
This study was looking at advertising commercials in Pakistan of the beverage companies Coca-Cola and PepsiCo. They were researching a change in themes of these companies and the values they represented in relation to the Pakistani culture. They did so by retrieving advertisements from the 90s to 2017 online through YouTube and their own websites. They identified several themes and identified a shift from being more wholesome and relatable to being more sexualized and hedonism which is considered culturally offensive. They also found that women were being used more often as a selling tool, sexualizing them in their advertisements.
Sharma, Sangeeta, and Arpan Bumb. 2021. “Role Portrayal of Women in Advertising: An Empirical Study.” Journal of International Women’s Studies 22(9):236-255
This study analyzed how women are portrayed in advertisements and how these portrayals impact consumers’ willingness to buy. They are focused on the sexualization of women and portraying them as objects which are becoming more common in advertising. They conducted a study where they gave a survey to 252 people and had them fill out questions regarding the impact of the unethical portrayals of women and the likelihood to purchase the product. They found that even though the portrayal of women has improved from the stereotypes seen in the past, there are still these old portrayals seen today. The willingness to purchase varied based on gender where women were less likely to purchase the product than the men when the women were being sexualized. When women were portrayed in a domestic role then women were less likely to purchase the product due to the increase in women’s involvement in the workforce while men were the opposite as they still see it as a vital role for women to fulfill. When women were portrayed in submissive roles both the men and women were less likely to purchase the product due to how this is perceived in society.
Strauss, Ethan. 2021. “Nike’s End of Men.” Nike’s End of Men – by Ethan Strauss. Retrieved April 21, 2022 (https://houseofstrauss.substack.com/p/nikes-end-of-men?s=r).
Toffoletti, Kim, and Holly Thorpe. 2018. “The Athletic Labour of Femininity: The Branding and Consumption of Global Celebrity Sportswomen on Instagram.” Journal of Consumer Culture. 18(2):298. doi: 10.1177/1469540517747068.
This article is studying how elite female athletes promote themselves on social media and the fan engagement on their photos posted on Instagram. To do so, they analyzed five of the most popular female athletes in the world. In the study, they examined trends of female athletes’ engagement with their social media as well as branding and consumer culture. They believe that fan engagement plays a critical role in the image that female athletes present in accordance with their audience and gendered work. They looked at a total of 2,109 posts from the five athletes and chose the five top liked photos of each woman. They then looked through the thousands of comments and created a two-step approach to gather themes within the fan’s responses. The first approach was starting with the first visible comment and continued until a saturation point was reached and there were no longer any new themes discovered. The second approach involved randomly searching through the comments to find any other themes they may have missed. They found that the posts with the most interaction (fan-athlete interaction), meaning most likes and comments, were most closely aligned with social attitudes and qualities that are expected of young women in today’s world and is used a form of expression. They want to portray themselves as aesthetically pleasing as they can through their body to market their lifestyle and reach high visibility from the athletic perspective. They found that the fan comments from men were related to their bodies and sexualizing them through the male gaze while the women commented with a more positive approach that was directed towards glamorizing them for their bodies and seeing them as an inspiration for their ideal image.
West, Candace and Don H. Zimmerman. 1987. “Doing Gender.” Gender and Society 1(2):125151. Retrieved March 1, 2022 (https://gettysburg.mrooms2.net/pluginfile.php/1016129/course/section/403313/West%20and%20Zimmerman%20-%20Doing%20Gender.pdf)
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Header Image created by me: Logo Nike by Sergigarm12 CC-BY-SA, Under Armour Logo, Lululemon Logo, Athleta Logo by Athleta
